Contrastive conjunction and Modal perfect

Types of conjunction

Different types of conjunctions link information in different ways. It is important to know which conjunctions establish which types of links.

There are five main types of conjunction in English.

1. Conjunctions of addition and replacement

Additive conjunctions simply add more information to what is already there. Examples of additive conjunctions include:

and, also, in addition, not only … but also, moreover, further, besides.

Example:

The study used a small sample only and was strongly criticized for this reason. Furthermore, the initial premise of the research was considered questionable in the light of previous evidence.

Conjunctions of replacement replace one piece of information with another. That is, they offer an alternative. Conjunctions of replacement include the words:

or, or else, alternatively.

Example :

The results could be interpreted to mean that high levels of protein are beneficial to diet generally. Alternatively, they could also mean that high protein levels are only beneficial to severely overweight males.

2. Conjunctions of comparison, contrast and concession

Comparative conjunctions are used to link two ideas that are considered to be similar. Comparative conjunctions include the terms:

in the same way, likewise, just as, both … and.

Example :

Reading aloud to young children stimulates their interest in books. Similarly, visiting libraries or book fairs has been shown to increase children’s readiness to engage with print.

Contrastive conjunctions link two ideas that are considered to be different. Examples of contrastive conjunctions include:

but, however, in contrast, on the contrary, instead, nevertheless, yet, still, even so, neither … nor.

Example :

This evidence points clearly to a fall in the number of unemployed. On the other hand, anecdotal evidence from reputable charities suggests that the number of people seeking financial support has increased.

Concessive conjunctions are a subgroup of contrastive conjunctions. They are used to contrast one idea with another where one piece of information appears to be surprising or unexpected in view of the other idea. Examples of concessive conjunctions include:

though, although, despite, in spite of, notwithstanding, whereas, while.

Example :

Even though money has been poured into literacy programs, literacy levels among 12-15 year olds do not appear to be improving.

Perfect Modal Verbs

Modal verb + have + past participle

The Future Perfect Tense

Unlike all the other modals above, will is used for the future:

Subject + will + have + past participle

Singular	Plural
I will have lived	We will have lived
You will have lived	You will have lived
He will have lived
She will have lived	They will have lived
It will have lived

This is a difficult tense to use. It describes an action that will be completed in the future.

For example:

I moved to Minnesota in 1991. The year now is 2008.

By 2011, I will have lived in Minnesota for 20 years.

Business letter

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A commercial business letter is a letter written in formal language, usually used when writing from one business organization to another, or for correspondence between such organizations and their customers, clients and other external parties. The overall style of letter will depend on the relationship between the parties concerned. There are many reasons to write a business letter. It could be to request direct information or action from another party, to order supplies from a supplier, to identify a mistake that was committed, to reply directly to a request, to apologize for a wrong or simply to convey goodwill. Even today, the business letter is still very useful because it produces a permanent record, is confidential, formal and delivers persuasive, well-considered messages

General Format

There are two main styles of business letters:

1. Full block style: Align all elements on the left margin.
2. Modified block style with other elements on the left page margin.

Margins

In general, left and right margins are one inch (approx. 2.5 cm).

For letters that are a full page or longer, top and bottom margins are likewise one inch (approx. 2.5 cm).

For letters shorter than a full page, the text is centered vertically so that the top and bottom margins match.

Font Formatting

No special character or font formatting is used, except for the subject line, which is usually underlined.

Punctuation

The salutation/greeting is generally followed by a comma, although in the United States a colon is often preferred. The valediction/closing is followed by a comma.

Example Template

[YOUR NAME]
[SENDER'S ADDRESS]
(optional[SENDER'S PHONE]
(optional[THE SENDER'S E-MAIL]

[DATE]

[RECIPIENT W/O PREFIX]
[RECIPIENT'S COMPANY]
[RECIPIENT'S ADDRESS]

(Optional) Attention [DEPARTMENT/PERSON],

Dear [RECIPIENT W/ PREFIX]:
[First Salutation then Subject in Business letters]

[CONTENT.]

[CONTENT.]


[COMPLIMENTARY CLOSING (Sincerely, Respectfully, Regards, etc.)],


[SENDER]
[SENDER'S TITLE]


Enclosures ([NUMBER OF ENCLOSURES])

cc: [CC RECIPIENT], [CC RECIPIENT TITLE]
[CC RECIPIENT], [CC RECIPIENT TITLE]

Direct and Inderect speech

Direct Speech Refers to reproducing another person’s exact words or saying exactly what someone has said (sometimes called quoted speech).

We use quotation marks (“__”) and it should be word for word
Indirect speech Refers to reproducing the idea of another person’s words that doesn’t use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn’t have to be word for word.

Indirect speech is sometimes called reported speech.

The tense usually changes when reporting speech. This is because we are usually talking about a time in the past and obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past.

The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too

For example:

Direct speech Indirect speech


Present simple Past simple

Vita said, “I eat fried rice”. Vita said that she ate fried rice.

Past simple Past Perfect

Mother said, “I went to market yesterday”. Mother said (that) she had gone to market the day before.

Future simple Past Future

Lea said, “I am going to wash my clothes”. Lea said (that) she was going to wash her clothes.

Dave said, “I will buy an I-Pod next week”. Dave said (that) he would buy an I-Pod the week after.

Present continuous Past continuous

Gama said, “I am playing football”. Gama said he was playing football.

Past continuous Past perfect continuous

She said, “I was teaching earlier.” She said she had been teaching earlier.

When we want to report what someone said, we do not usually repeat their exact words, we use our words. We can use reporting verbs, such as tell, say, ask followed by ‘that-clause’.

Example: My mother said that she got up at 4 o’clock.

When reporting verbs is in the Present, Present Perfect, or Future, there is no change of tense in the words reported.

Example: She will tell you

She says (that) she doesn’t know.

She has just said


In time expressions and pronouns
Direct speech
Indirect speech
Now


Today/tonight

Yesterday

Tomorrow

Last week

Next week

Ago Then


That day/that night

The day before/the previous day

The next/following day

The previous week

The following week/the week after

Before
This/these


Here

Pronouns That/those


There

They change according to the context


v Sometimes we need to report someone’s questions. The reported question are introduced with the verb ask, inquire, wonder, want to know, etc.
Type
Form
Examples
Yes-No questions Ask + if/whether + subject + verb


Wonder etc.
“Do you speak English?”

- He wondered if I spoke English.
Wh-questions Ask + question word + subject + verb


Wonder etc.
“What are you watching?”

- She asked what I am watching.

Expressing curiosity, desire and views

 Definition : curiosity is an expression of interest to declare something to be desired, the novelty of the unknown. Desire is expression that reveals something about the person’s wishes and expectations of future .

Expressing curiosity

·         What I’d really like to find out is…

·         I’d be very interested to know…

·         I’ve been meaning to ask you.

·         I’d like to know…

·         I wish I knew…

·         I’d love to know…

·         What’s on your mind?

·         I wonder…?

Expressing views

Definition : express our view with saying and explain that with someone and give opinions to someone and also we can ask for opinions with someone.

Expressing views	Responding
I think the most important is…	You may be right
I have the similar view.	That’s good
In my opinion…	Yeah
I can’t understand it , but I have a different opinion.	I know